By John Chang
Questions and Discussion
1. Introduction
In the previous chapters, we proposed that time corresponds to the symbol "O", while space corresponds to the symbol "|". These two represent a complementary pair of opposites within the Universal Law framework.
If they indeed constitute an inseparable duality, then they should emerge together and disappear together. Consequently, a three-dimensional space should correspond to a three-dimensional time, forming a six-dimensional spacetime, rather than the conventional four-dimensional spacetime consisting of three spatial dimensions and one temporal dimension.
2. Physical Spacetime: Three-Dimensional Space and One-Dimensional Time
Modern physics—from Newtonian mechanics to Einstein's theories—is fundamentally built upon three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time. Einstein unified these into the concept of four-dimensional spacetime.
Through Special Relativity and General Relativity, Einstein further developed this framework geometrically. His theory showed that mass curves the surrounding spacetime, extending Newton's concept of absolute space and time into a relativistic spacetime and replacing Newtonian gravitation with gravitational field equations. However, the wave equations derived from four-dimensional spacetime are mathematically extremely complex.
In recent decades, developments in quantum theory and the search for a unified field theory have introduced higher-dimensional spacetime concepts, most notably string theory. Some versions propose ten-dimensional spacetime, while others suggest twenty-six dimensions.
Yet no widely accepted explanation has been given for how these ten or twenty-six dimensions reduce to the three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time that we directly experience. Likewise, why should spacetime possess ten or twenty-six dimensions rather than fifteen or twenty?
From the perspective presented in this book, these higher-dimensional constructions remain primarily mathematical models. Without a clear physical interpretation connecting them to observable reality, their practical significance remains uncertain.
Figure 9-1
Ten- and Twenty-Six-Dimensional Spacetime in String Theory
What does such spacetime actually look like?
3. The Concept of Three-Dimensional Time and Three-Dimensional Space
3.1 Humanity
The concept of three-dimensional time is derived from the Universal Law symbols ".", "|", and "O".
Everyone is familiar with one-dimensional time. But what would two-dimensional or three-dimensional time mean physically? Very few discussions have addressed this question.
As an illustration, let us place the temporal scale on Earth and use human beings as the object of study.
Figure 9-2
One-Dimensional Human Time
For an individual human being, life extends from birth to death, forming one complete temporal cycle—for example, approximately one hundred years.
Each generation is followed by the next, producing a continuous sequence of individual life cycles. This constitutes one-dimensional human time, represented by the x-axis (Figure 9-2).
Now consider time from a higher level.
If humanity is regarded collectively as the object of study, then human populations also possess life cycles. Individual people cannot directly perceive such cycles, but history and fossil evidence suggest that numerous human groups have appeared and later disappeared.
Small ethnic groups may survive for only several centuries, whereas large civilizations may endure for tens of thousands of years. In China, for example, many different ethnic groups once coexisted. Over time, however, the Han population gradually assimilated many of them, while historically powerful peoples such as the Khitans eventually vanished.
According to the framework proposed in this book, humanity may ultimately converge toward only a few highly developed cultural traditions characterized by openness, innovation, and adaptability, while less adaptive cultures gradually disappear.
Observing today's world, one may already identify which cultural traditions appear to be expanding and which seem to be declining. Ancient civilizations possess long histories, yet if they become overly conservative and resistant to change, they may eventually lose vitality.
From the author's perspective, today's world is largely represented by two major cultural traditions. One is the Western civilization based primarily on phonetic writing systems (including the Arabic civilization of the Middle East), while the other is the Eastern civilization based primarily on logographic writing systems (including hybrid writing cultures such as Korea and Japan). Within the Universal Law framework, these two traditions represent complementary aspects of reality.
As cultural exchange, technological integration, and intermarriage continue, humanity may eventually evolve toward a single global civilization—or even a unified human community.
This evolutionary timescale represents two-dimensional human time, corresponding to the y-axis (Figure 9-3).
Figure 9-3
Two-Dimensional Time of Human Populations
Finally, humanity itself—from its emergence to its eventual disappearance—forms an even larger temporal cycle.
The earliest known human fossils were discovered in Africa and date back more than one million years.
According to the evolutionary interpretation proposed here, early humans possessed relatively small skulls and bodies. During evolution, both increased in size, representing an expansive phase. In the distant future, humanity may evolve toward relatively larger brains and smaller bodies, reflecting a contraction phase analogous to the cyclic evolution proposed for the universe.
This represents three-dimensional human time, corresponding to the z-axis (Figure 9-4).
Figure 9-4
Three-Dimensional Human Time
Dinosaurs provide another useful illustration.
The lifespan of an individual dinosaur represents one-dimensional time.
The evolutionary history of a dinosaur lineage—for example, pterosaurs or sauropods—represents two-dimensional time.
The complete history of all dinosaurs, from their origin to their extinction, represents three-dimensional time.
Today, the entire dinosaur clade has disappeared, illustrating the completion of a three-dimensional temporal cycle.
3.2 Earth
The same hierarchy can be applied to life on Earth.
The life of an individual organism represents one-dimensional time.
The evolutionary history of a biological species—for example, dogs or cats—represents two-dimensional time.
The history of all life on Earth—from the earliest multicellular organisms approximately 600 million years ago to the eventual disappearance of terrestrial life—constitutes three-dimensional time.
3.3 The Milky Way
The same temporal framework can also be applied on a galactic scale.
Stars such as the Sun are the fundamental constituents of the Milky Way.
The Sun's life—from stellar nebula to white dwarf and ultimately black dwarf—constitutes its one-dimensional temporal cycle, represented by the x-axis.
Figure 9-5
One-Dimensional Time of the Sun
The collective evolution of stellar populations, regardless of stellar mass, forms the two-dimensional temporal cycle of stars, represented by the y-axis.
Figure 9-6
Two-Dimensional Time of Stellar Populations
The complete life cycle of the Milky Way—from its formation to its eventual disappearance—constitutes its three-dimensional temporal cycle, represented by the z-axis.
Figure 9-7
Three-Dimensional Time of the Milky Way
Likewise, the temporal coordinate system may be extended even further by taking the center of the universe as the reference scale.
4. Units of Spatial Cycles and Temporal Cycles
Consider Earth as an example.
Spatial measurements may use kilometers as the basic unit. All three spatial dimensions extend outward using the same spatial unit. This equal-unit extension is referred to here as a spatial cycle unit.
Time follows a similar principle. Instead of distance, however, the fundamental unit is a complete temporal cycle. Each temporal dimension extends using equal cycle units, forming what this book calls a temporal cycle unit.
For example, for humanity:
When studying an individual's lifetime (Tx), we generally ignore the much longer population cycle (Ty) and the even larger human-history cycle (Tz). Consequently, our ordinary experience corresponds to one-dimensional time within three-dimensional space.
Similarly, when studying the population cycle (Ty), both the shorter individual lifetime (Tx) and the much longer species-wide cycle (Tz) may be neglected.
Figure 9-8
The Six-Dimensional Structure of Spacetime
Time corresponds to the circle (Yin), while space corresponds to the line (Yang).
The same reasoning applies to the Milky Way.
Because the temporal scales associated with the x-, y-, and z-axes differ enormously, investigations at one scale typically neglect the other two. As a result, our ordinary perception is effectively limited to one-dimensional time.
5. Summary
In summary, the conventional spacetime framework consisting of one-dimensional time and three-dimensional space is asymmetric and, according to the Universal Law framework, does not fully satisfy the structural principles represented by ".", "|", and "O".
It may adequately describe human perception, but the actual structure of the universe may instead consist of three-dimensional time and three-dimensional space, forming a six-dimensional spacetime.
Furthermore, if future theories demonstrate that space possesses ten dimensions—or indeed any number of dimensions—then each spatial dimension should have a corresponding temporal dimension. Otherwise, the dimensional structure would violate the symmetry proposed by the Universal Law.
Within this framework, six-dimensional physical spacetime and the wave-particle duality of intelligent life are interpreted as manifestations of a more general Universal Law. This perspective may provide useful insights toward a unified field theory, while suggesting that physics based solely on four-dimensional spacetime may eventually require substantial revision.
John Chang：《Universal Law》（ Chapter 9）（2003-2006）
www.amazon.com.au/Universal-Law-civilization-John-Chang-ebook/dp/B0DDCR3F6M/ref=sr_1_2?crid=25DMFUFU1PDYU&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.oTN_JP6JuXxLA-KzECM4EEAF-QckuHFMrj4LPbnycTWA49DHkdNnK8ZbDHl-VI_rqKf_LugI4BAm136-pif1TmEzEED_r0AsYZqFb0rXrJVMaWf61b_BcREIAoEiNW7H_Y5-B3eh2Bbp2E9oFWBKpg.VN2jjVxScD9W6foJMzydHDxNHykY8Di08zjUzcyeUes&dib_tag=se&keywords=john+chang+universal+law&qid=1783634676&s=books&sprefix=%2Cstripbooks%2C222&sr=1-2
Note：
An interesting example concerns three-dimensional time.
In Chapter 9 of the author's Universal Law ( published between 2003 and 2006 ), the concept of three-dimensional time corresponding to three-dimensional space was proposed and interpreted primarily from a macroscopic perspective.
More recently, Gunther Kletetschka proposed a mathematical formulation of three-dimensional time in the paper Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics (2025), approaching the concept from the microscopic and mathematical perspective.
Although the two works differ substantially in methodology, motivation, and theoretical framework, they illustrate how similar structural ideas may emerge independently within different scientific contexts. This example suggests that structural concepts proposed earlier may later receive new mathematical formulations through independent developments.
www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/S2424942425500045?srsltid=AfmBOorPRnSpqhUz965zOpMQh2YTGn0_lFMvVnAy05rmV0QdOlk0m2gr
Questions and Discussion
- Is the spacetime system of the universe truly composed of three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time?
- How should two-dimensional time and three-dimensional time be described, and what is their significance?
- What are spatial cycles and temporal cycles?
- Why must every spatial dimension correspond to a temporal dimension, regardless of how many dimensions exist?
1. Introduction
In the previous chapters, we proposed that time corresponds to the symbol "O", while space corresponds to the symbol "|". These two represent a complementary pair of opposites within the Universal Law framework.
If they indeed constitute an inseparable duality, then they should emerge together and disappear together. Consequently, a three-dimensional space should correspond to a three-dimensional time, forming a six-dimensional spacetime, rather than the conventional four-dimensional spacetime consisting of three spatial dimensions and one temporal dimension.
2. Physical Spacetime: Three-Dimensional Space and One-Dimensional Time
Modern physics—from Newtonian mechanics to Einstein's theories—is fundamentally built upon three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time. Einstein unified these into the concept of four-dimensional spacetime.
Through Special Relativity and General Relativity, Einstein further developed this framework geometrically. His theory showed that mass curves the surrounding spacetime, extending Newton's concept of absolute space and time into a relativistic spacetime and replacing Newtonian gravitation with gravitational field equations. However, the wave equations derived from four-dimensional spacetime are mathematically extremely complex.
In recent decades, developments in quantum theory and the search for a unified field theory have introduced higher-dimensional spacetime concepts, most notably string theory. Some versions propose ten-dimensional spacetime, while others suggest twenty-six dimensions.
Yet no widely accepted explanation has been given for how these ten or twenty-six dimensions reduce to the three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time that we directly experience. Likewise, why should spacetime possess ten or twenty-six dimensions rather than fifteen or twenty?
From the perspective presented in this book, these higher-dimensional constructions remain primarily mathematical models. Without a clear physical interpretation connecting them to observable reality, their practical significance remains uncertain.
Figure 9-1
Ten- and Twenty-Six-Dimensional Spacetime in String Theory
What does such spacetime actually look like?
3. The Concept of Three-Dimensional Time and Three-Dimensional Space
3.1 Humanity
The concept of three-dimensional time is derived from the Universal Law symbols ".", "|", and "O".
Everyone is familiar with one-dimensional time. But what would two-dimensional or three-dimensional time mean physically? Very few discussions have addressed this question.
As an illustration, let us place the temporal scale on Earth and use human beings as the object of study.
Figure 9-2
One-Dimensional Human Time
For an individual human being, life extends from birth to death, forming one complete temporal cycle—for example, approximately one hundred years.
Each generation is followed by the next, producing a continuous sequence of individual life cycles. This constitutes one-dimensional human time, represented by the x-axis (Figure 9-2).
Now consider time from a higher level.
If humanity is regarded collectively as the object of study, then human populations also possess life cycles. Individual people cannot directly perceive such cycles, but history and fossil evidence suggest that numerous human groups have appeared and later disappeared.
Small ethnic groups may survive for only several centuries, whereas large civilizations may endure for tens of thousands of years. In China, for example, many different ethnic groups once coexisted. Over time, however, the Han population gradually assimilated many of them, while historically powerful peoples such as the Khitans eventually vanished.
According to the framework proposed in this book, humanity may ultimately converge toward only a few highly developed cultural traditions characterized by openness, innovation, and adaptability, while less adaptive cultures gradually disappear.
Observing today's world, one may already identify which cultural traditions appear to be expanding and which seem to be declining. Ancient civilizations possess long histories, yet if they become overly conservative and resistant to change, they may eventually lose vitality.
From the author's perspective, today's world is largely represented by two major cultural traditions. One is the Western civilization based primarily on phonetic writing systems (including the Arabic civilization of the Middle East), while the other is the Eastern civilization based primarily on logographic writing systems (including hybrid writing cultures such as Korea and Japan). Within the Universal Law framework, these two traditions represent complementary aspects of reality.
As cultural exchange, technological integration, and intermarriage continue, humanity may eventually evolve toward a single global civilization—or even a unified human community.
This evolutionary timescale represents two-dimensional human time, corresponding to the y-axis (Figure 9-3).
Figure 9-3
Two-Dimensional Time of Human Populations
Finally, humanity itself—from its emergence to its eventual disappearance—forms an even larger temporal cycle.
The earliest known human fossils were discovered in Africa and date back more than one million years.
According to the evolutionary interpretation proposed here, early humans possessed relatively small skulls and bodies. During evolution, both increased in size, representing an expansive phase. In the distant future, humanity may evolve toward relatively larger brains and smaller bodies, reflecting a contraction phase analogous to the cyclic evolution proposed for the universe.
This represents three-dimensional human time, corresponding to the z-axis (Figure 9-4).
Figure 9-4
Three-Dimensional Human Time
Dinosaurs provide another useful illustration.
The lifespan of an individual dinosaur represents one-dimensional time.
The evolutionary history of a dinosaur lineage—for example, pterosaurs or sauropods—represents two-dimensional time.
The complete history of all dinosaurs, from their origin to their extinction, represents three-dimensional time.
Today, the entire dinosaur clade has disappeared, illustrating the completion of a three-dimensional temporal cycle.
3.2 Earth
The same hierarchy can be applied to life on Earth.
The life of an individual organism represents one-dimensional time.
The evolutionary history of a biological species—for example, dogs or cats—represents two-dimensional time.
The history of all life on Earth—from the earliest multicellular organisms approximately 600 million years ago to the eventual disappearance of terrestrial life—constitutes three-dimensional time.
3.3 The Milky Way
The same temporal framework can also be applied on a galactic scale.
Stars such as the Sun are the fundamental constituents of the Milky Way.
The Sun's life—from stellar nebula to white dwarf and ultimately black dwarf—constitutes its one-dimensional temporal cycle, represented by the x-axis.
Figure 9-5
One-Dimensional Time of the Sun
The collective evolution of stellar populations, regardless of stellar mass, forms the two-dimensional temporal cycle of stars, represented by the y-axis.
Figure 9-6
Two-Dimensional Time of Stellar Populations
The complete life cycle of the Milky Way—from its formation to its eventual disappearance—constitutes its three-dimensional temporal cycle, represented by the z-axis.
Figure 9-7
Three-Dimensional Time of the Milky Way
Likewise, the temporal coordinate system may be extended even further by taking the center of the universe as the reference scale.
4. Units of Spatial Cycles and Temporal Cycles
Consider Earth as an example.
Spatial measurements may use kilometers as the basic unit. All three spatial dimensions extend outward using the same spatial unit. This equal-unit extension is referred to here as a spatial cycle unit.
Time follows a similar principle. Instead of distance, however, the fundamental unit is a complete temporal cycle. Each temporal dimension extends using equal cycle units, forming what this book calls a temporal cycle unit.
For example, for humanity:
- one cycle along the x-axis may be approximately 100 years;
- one cycle along the y-axis may span roughly 10,000 years;
- one cycle along the z-axis may exceed one million years.
When studying an individual's lifetime (Tx), we generally ignore the much longer population cycle (Ty) and the even larger human-history cycle (Tz). Consequently, our ordinary experience corresponds to one-dimensional time within three-dimensional space.
Similarly, when studying the population cycle (Ty), both the shorter individual lifetime (Tx) and the much longer species-wide cycle (Tz) may be neglected.
Figure 9-8
The Six-Dimensional Structure of Spacetime
Time corresponds to the circle (Yin), while space corresponds to the line (Yang).
The same reasoning applies to the Milky Way.
Because the temporal scales associated with the x-, y-, and z-axes differ enormously, investigations at one scale typically neglect the other two. As a result, our ordinary perception is effectively limited to one-dimensional time.
5. Summary
In summary, the conventional spacetime framework consisting of one-dimensional time and three-dimensional space is asymmetric and, according to the Universal Law framework, does not fully satisfy the structural principles represented by ".", "|", and "O".
It may adequately describe human perception, but the actual structure of the universe may instead consist of three-dimensional time and three-dimensional space, forming a six-dimensional spacetime.
Furthermore, if future theories demonstrate that space possesses ten dimensions—or indeed any number of dimensions—then each spatial dimension should have a corresponding temporal dimension. Otherwise, the dimensional structure would violate the symmetry proposed by the Universal Law.
Within this framework, six-dimensional physical spacetime and the wave-particle duality of intelligent life are interpreted as manifestations of a more general Universal Law. This perspective may provide useful insights toward a unified field theory, while suggesting that physics based solely on four-dimensional spacetime may eventually require substantial revision.
John Chang：《Universal Law》（ Chapter 9）（2003-2006）
www.amazon.com.au/Universal-Law-civilization-John-Chang-ebook/dp/B0DDCR3F6M/ref=sr_1_2?crid=25DMFUFU1PDYU&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.oTN_JP6JuXxLA-KzECM4EEAF-QckuHFMrj4LPbnycTWA49DHkdNnK8ZbDHl-VI_rqKf_LugI4BAm136-pif1TmEzEED_r0AsYZqFb0rXrJVMaWf61b_BcREIAoEiNW7H_Y5-B3eh2Bbp2E9oFWBKpg.VN2jjVxScD9W6foJMzydHDxNHykY8Di08zjUzcyeUes&dib_tag=se&keywords=john+chang+universal+law&qid=1783634676&s=books&sprefix=%2Cstripbooks%2C222&sr=1-2
Note：
An interesting example concerns three-dimensional time.
In Chapter 9 of the author's Universal Law ( published between 2003 and 2006 ), the concept of three-dimensional time corresponding to three-dimensional space was proposed and interpreted primarily from a macroscopic perspective.
More recently, Gunther Kletetschka proposed a mathematical formulation of three-dimensional time in the paper Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics (2025), approaching the concept from the microscopic and mathematical perspective.
Although the two works differ substantially in methodology, motivation, and theoretical framework, they illustrate how similar structural ideas may emerge independently within different scientific contexts. This example suggests that structural concepts proposed earlier may later receive new mathematical formulations through independent developments.
www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/S2424942425500045?srsltid=AfmBOorPRnSpqhUz965zOpMQh2YTGn0_lFMvVnAy05rmV0QdOlk0m2gr
RSS Feed